Montgomery Bus Boycott Timeline ~ Master News

The Montgomery Bus Boycott was a political and social protest campaign that started in 1955 in The boycott caused crippling financial deficit for the Montgomery public transit system, because the It cannot be determined to what extent this was based on sympathy with the boycott, or simply...The Montgomery Bus Boycott. This is the currently selected item. The Montgomery Bus Boycott. Ap.ush: KC‑8.2.I (kc). , SOC (Theme). , Unit 8: Learning Objective G. Learn about Rosa Parks's courageous decision to fight discrimination and the boycott that ended segregation on public buses.It focuses on the Montgomery Bus Boycott as a case study of the importance of building constituencies to impact social problems. Common Core State Standards Connections First, students complete a brief reading about the Montgomery Bus Boycott.The Montgomery Bus Boycott started in December 1955. What happened in Montgomery is seen as a pivotal point in the whole civil rights story and brought to Citation: C N Trueman "Montgomery Bus Boycott" historylearningsite.co.uk. The History Learning Site, 27 Mar 2015. 3 Apr 2021.A brief overview of the Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-1956), its roots in Brown V Board of Education and its influence on the Civil Rights Movement. Park operations vary based on local public health conditions. Before visiting, please check the park website to determine its operating status.

The Montgomery Bus Boycott (article) | Khan Academy

The Montgomery bus boycott continued into 1956. During that time, reactionaries within the local white Latter, conspiracy charges (based on state anti-boycott law) were brought Furthermore, the Montgomery Bus Boycott was important because it set the tone for the whole civil rights movement.The Montgomery Bus Boycott was a political and social protest campaign started in 1955 in Montgomery, Alabama, USA, intended to Some white housewives also drove their black domestic servants to work, although it is unclear to what extent this was based on sympathy with the boycott...The bus boycott demonstrated the potential for nonviolent mass protest to successfully challenge racial segregation and served as an example for Sparked by the arrest of Rosa Parks on 1 December 1955, the Montgomery bus boycott was a 13-month mass protest that ended with the U.S...Montgomery Bus Boycott. In the 1950s the National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People was involved in the struggle to end segregation on As I got up on the bus and walked to the seat I saw there was only one vacancy that was just back of where it was considered the white section.

PDF Montgomery Bus Boycott

The Montgomery Bus Boycott of 1954-55 was a non-violent protest which involved A frican-American citizens refraining from using the Montgomery busline in Alabama . The Jim Crow Laws were based on race and were put into place in the late 1800s a nd early 1900s, after the Civil War.The Montgomery bus boycott changed the way people lived and reacted to each other. The American civil rights movement began a long time ago, as early Three months later a second bus boycott was started by Reverend T.J. Jemison. The new boycott lasted about one week, and yet it forced the city...The Montgomery Bus Boycott struck a major blow against segregation in America. Leaders such as Martin Luther King Jr solidified their positions. A blue-print was drawn for how to fight the system without violence, even when the establishment was not afraid to use violence on you.The Montgomery Bus Boycott officially started on December 1, 1955. Perhaps the movement started on the day in 1943 when a black seamstress named Rosa Parks paid her bus fare and then watched the bus drive off as she tried to re-enter through the rear door, as the driver had told her to do.The Montgomery Bus Boycott started After Rosa Parks refused to back down. Her action was not for the fainthearted, A decision that altered the whole town. The boycott began on December 5, 1955, and lasted until December 20, 1956. During this civil rights protest, African Americans in Montgomery...

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Montgomery bus boycottPart of the Civil Rights MovementRosa Parks on a Montgomery bus on December 21, 1956, the day Montgomery's public transportation system was legally integrated. Behind Parks is Nicholas C. Chriss, a UPI reporter masking the match.DateDecember 5, 1955 – December 20, 1956 (1 yr and 16 days)LocationMontgomery, Alabama, U.S.Caused via Racial segregation on public transportation Successful 6-day Baton Rouge bus boycott Claudette Colvin's arrest Rosa Parks' arrestResulted in Browder v. Gayle (1956) Emergence of Martin Luther King Jr. Inspired Tallahassee bus boycott Formation of Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)Parties to the civil war Women's Political Council (WPC) Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) City Commission of Montgomery National City Lines Montgomery City Lines Montgomery Citizens Council Lead figuresWPC member Jo Ann Robinson

MIA contributors

Martin Luther King Jr. E.D. Nixon Rosa Parks Fred Gray City Commission W. A. Gayle, President of the Commission (mayor) Frank Parks, Commissioner Clyde Sellers, Police Commissioner

National City Lines

Kenneth E. Totten, vice chairman

Montgomery City Lines

J.H. Bagley, manager Jack Crenshaw, legal professional James F. Blake, bus motive force vteCivil Rights Movement in AlabamaState of Alabama Alabama Pupil Placement Law NAACP v. Patterson NAACP v. Alabama United States v. Alabama Original Freedom Rides George Wallace's Inaugural Address United States v. Wallace Hamilton v. Alabama

City of Birmingham

Bombingham Birmingham bus boycott First Bethel Baptist Church bombing Shuttlesworth v. Birmingham Board of Education Birmingham sit-ins Armstrong v. Birmingham Board of Education Gober v. City of Birmingham Birmingham marketing campaign Children's Crusade Gaston Motel and King place of abode bombings Birmingham rebellion of 1963 16th Street Baptist Church bombing Shooting of Johnny Robinson Murder of Virgil Lamar Ware Katzenbach v. McClung Shuttlesworth v. City of Birmingham

City of Montgomery

Montgomery bus boycott Browder v. Gayle Robert Graetz place of abode bombing Martin Luther King Jr. place of dwelling bombing Gilmore v. City of Montgomery Montgomery sit-ins Connecticut Freedom Ride New York Times Co. v. Sullivan Selma to Montgomery marches U.S. v. Montgomery County Board of Ed. Smith v. Young Men's Christian Association Gilmore v. City of Montgomery

City of Selma

Selma to Montgomery marches Murder of Jimmie Lee Jackson Murder of James Reeb Murder of Viola Liuzzo

City of Tuscaloosa

Lucy v. Adams University of Alabama desegregation crisis Stand in the Schoolhouse Door Bloody Tuesday

City of Tuskegee

Tuskegee service provider boycott Alabama Act 140 Tuskegee sit-ins Gomillion v. Lightfoot Tuskegee High School desegregation disaster Murder of Sammy Younge Jr. Lee v. Macon County Board of Education

Other localities

Murder of Willie Edwards Murder of William Lewis Moore Murder of Willie Brewster Murder of Jonathan Daniels

The Montgomery bus boycott was a political and a social protest campaign against the coverage of racial segregation on the public transit device of Montgomery, Alabama. It was a seminal event in the civil rights movement in the United States. The campaign lasted from December 5, 1955—the Monday after Rosa Parks, an African-American woman, was arrested for her refusal to surrender her seat to a white individual—to December 20, 1956, when the federal ruling Browder v. Gayle took effect, and ended in a United States Supreme Court decision that declared the Alabama and Montgomery laws that segregated buses have been unconstitutional.[1]

Background

Prior to the bus boycott, Jim Crow regulations mandated the racial segregation of the Montgomery Bus Line. As a end result of this segregation African Americans weren't employed as drivers, were compelled to ride in the back of the bus, and were incessantly ordered to give up their seats to white other folks even though black passengers made up 75% of the bus gadget's riders.[2]

African-American passengers had been additionally attacked and shortchanged via bus drivers along with being left stranded after paying their fares. A host of reasons had been given for why bus drivers acted in this way, together with racism,[3] frustrations over hard work disputes and exertions stipulations, and higher animosity against blacks in reaction to the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education determination, with many of the drivers joining the White Citizens Councils in consequence of the determination.[4][5]

Although it is frequently framed as the start of the civil rights motion, the boycott befell at the end of the black neighborhood's combat in the south to offer protection to black girls, akin to Recy Taylor, from racial and sexual violence.[6] The boycott also happened inside of a larger statewide and national motion for civil rights, including court cases reminiscent of Morgan v. Virginia, the earlier Baton Rouge bus boycott, and the arrest of Claudette Colvin for refusing to give up her seat on a Montgomery bus.

Rape of Recy Taylor Main article: Recy Taylor

On September 3, 1944, Recy Taylor, a black lady, was raped by way of six white males in Abbeville, Alabama.[7]Rosa Parks investigated her case, and he or she, at the side of E.D. Nixon, Rufus A. Lewis, and E.G. Jackson, organized a protection for Taylor in Montgomery. They mobilized nation-wide support from exertions unions, African-American organizations, and women's teams to shape the Alabama Committee for Equal Justice for Mrs. Recy Taylor.[8] Although they didn't reach obtaining justice in court docket for Taylor, the mobilization of the black neighborhood in Alabama arrange social and political networks that enabled the luck of the Montgomery bus boycott a decade later.[9]

Morgan v. Virginia choice Main article: Morgan v. Virginia

The NAACP had accepted and litigated other circumstances, together with that of Irene Morgan in 1946, which ended in a victory in the U.S. Supreme Court on the grounds that segregated interstate bus lines violated the Commerce Clause.[10] That victory, on the other hand, overturned state segregation laws most effective insofar as they applied to travel in interstate trade, comparable to interstate bus commute,[11] and Southern bus firms instantly circumvented the Morgan ruling through instituting their own Jim Crow regulations.[12] Further incidents endured to take place in Montgomery, together with the arrest for disorderly habits in May 1951 of Lillie Mae Bradford, who refused to go away the white passengers' section till the bus driver amended an improper price on her transfer price ticket.[13]

Baton Rouge bus boycott Main article: Baton Rouge bus boycott

On February 25, 1953, the Baton Rouge, Louisiana city-parish council passed Ordinance 222, after the city saw protesting from African-Americans when the council raised the metropolis's bus fares.[14] The ordinance abolished race-based reserved seating requirements and allowed the admission of African-Americans in the front sections of metropolis buses if there have been no white passengers present, but nonetheless required African-Americans to enter from the rear, rather than the front of the buses.[15] However, the ordinance was largely unenforced through the city bus drivers. The drivers later went on strike after metropolis government refused to arrest Rev. T.J. Jemison for sitting in a entrance row.[16] Four days after the strike started, Louisiana Attorney General and previous Baton Rouge mayor Fred S. LeBlanc declared the ordinance unconstitutional underneath Louisiana state law.[15] This led Rev. Jemison to organize what historians believe to be the first bus boycott of the civil rights movement.[17] The boycott ended after 8 days when an agreement was reached to simply retain the first two back and front rows as racially reserved seating spaces.[14]

Arrest of Claudette Colvin Main article: Claudette Colvin

Black activists had begun to construct a case to challenge state bus segregation rules around the arrest of a 15-year-old lady, Claudette Colvin, a student at Booker T. Washington High School in Montgomery. On March 2, 1955, Colvin was handcuffed, arrested and forcibly removed from a public bus when she refused to surrender her seat to a white man. At the time, Colvin was an active member in the NAACP Youth Council; Rosa Parks was an marketing consultant.[18] Colvin's legal case formed the core of Browder v. Gayle, which ended the Montgomery bus boycott when the Supreme Court ruled on it in December 1956.

Murder of Emmett Till; trial and acquittal of the accused Main article: Emmett Till

In August 1955, merely four months prior to Parks' refusal to give up a seat on the bus that resulted in the Montgomery bus boycott, a 14-year-old boy from Chicago named Emmett Till was murdered via two white males, John W. Milam and Roy Bryant. The image of his brutally beaten body in the open-casket funeral that his mom requested was extensively publicized, specifically by way of the weekly newspaper Jet, which circulated to a lot of the black neighborhood in the Deep north. His accused killers have been acquitted the following month which generated huge outrage each regionally and the world over. A lengthy admission came from them that that they had certainly murdered the boy in an interview on January 24, 1956, printed in Look mag.[19]

Keys v. Carolina Coach Co. determination Main article: Keys v. Carolina Coach Co.

In November 1955, just 3 weeks before Parks' defiance of Jim Crow laws in Montgomery, the Interstate Commerce Commission, based on a grievance filed through Women's Army Corps private Sarah Keys, closed the legal loophole left via the Morgan ruling in a landmark case known as Keys v. Carolina Coach Co..[20] The ICC prohibited individual carriers from enforcing their own segregation laws on interstate travelers, mentioning that to do so was a contravention of the anti-discrimination provision of the Interstate Commerce Act. But neither the Supreme Court's Morgan ruling nor the ICC's Keys ruling addressed the subject of Jim Crow travel within the particular person states.[21]

History

Under the gadget of segregation used on Montgomery buses, the ten front seats have been reserved for white folks always. The ten again seats were supposed to be reserved for black other people at all times. The middle segment of the bus consisted of sixteen unreserved seats for white and black people on a segregated foundation.[22] White other people crammed the center seats from the entrance to back, and black people stuffed seats from the again to front until the bus was complete. If other black other folks boarded the bus, they had been required to stand. If every other white person boarded the bus, then everyone in the black row nearest the entrance needed to rise up and stand, in order that a new row for white people might be created; it was unlawful for white and black other folks to sit next to each other. When Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat for a white individual, she was sitting in the first row of the center phase.[23]

Often when boarding the buses, black other people had been required to pay at the entrance, get off, and reenter the bus through a separate door at the again.[24] Occasionally, bus drivers would power away ahead of black passengers were ready to reboard.[25]National City Lines owned the Montgomery Bus Line at the time of the Montgomery bus boycott.[26] Under the leadership of Walter Reuther, the United Auto Workers donated almost ,000 (identical to ,000 in 2019) to the boycott's organizing committee.[27]

Rosa Parks Main article: Rosa Parks Rosa Parks being fingerprinted by way of Deputy Sheriff D.H. Lackey after her arrest for boycotting public transportation

Rosa Parks (February 4, 1913 – October 24, 2005) was a seamstress by career; she was also the secretary for the Montgomery chapter of the NAACP. Twelve years ahead of her history-making arrest, Parks was stopped from boarding a city bus by way of driving force James F. Blake, who ordered her to board at the rear door after which drove off without her. Parks vowed never once more to experience a bus driven through Blake. As a member of the NAACP, Parks was an investigator assigned to cases of sexual assault. In 1945, she was despatched to Abbeville, Alabama, to research the gang rape of Recy Taylor. The protest that arose round the Taylor case was the first example of a national civil rights protest, and it laid the groundwork for the Montgomery bus boycott.[28]

A diagram appearing where Rosa Parks sat in the unreserved segment at the time of her arrest

In 1955, Parks finished a path in "Race Relations" at the Highlander Folk School in Tennessee, where nonviolent civil disobedience had been discussed as a tactic. On December 1, 1955, Parks was sitting in the fundamental row in which black people may sit (in the middle section). When a white guy boarded the bus, the bus driving force informed everybody in her row to move back. At that moment, Parks discovered that she was again on a bus driven via Blake. While all of the other black folks in her row complied, Parks refused, and she was arrested[29] for failing to obey the driving force's seat assignments, as city ordinances didn't explicitly mandate segregation but did give the bus driving force authority to assign seats. Found responsible on December 5,[30] Parks was fined plus a court cost of [31] (blended total similar to 4 in 2019), and she or he appealed.[32]

E. D. Nixon

Some motion towards segregation had been in the works for a while before Parks' arrest, beneath the leadership of E. D. Nixon, president of the local NAACP chapter and a member of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters. Nixon meant that her arrest be a take a look at case to allow Montgomery's black citizens to problem segregation on the metropolis's public buses. With this function, neighborhood leaders have been looking ahead to the right individual to be arrested, a person who would anger the black community into action, who would agree to check the segregation regulations in court docket, and who, most significantly, was "above reproach". When Colvin was arrested in March 1955, Nixon concept he had found the very best particular person, but the teen grew to become out to be pregnant. Nixon later defined, "I had to be sure that I had somebody I could win with." Parks was a just right candidate because of her employment and marital standing, in conjunction with her excellent status in the community.

Between Parks' arrest and trial, Nixon organized a gathering of native ministers at Martin Luther King Jr.'s church. Though Nixon could not attend the meeting as a result of of his work agenda, he arranged that no election of a leader for the proposed boycott would happen until his return. When he returned, he caucused with Ralph Abernathy and Rev. E.N. French to call the affiliation to steer the boycott to the city (they chose the "Montgomery Improvement Association", "MIA"), and they decided on King (Nixon's choice) to steer the boycott. Nixon sought after King to guide the boycott because the young minister was new to Montgomery and the metropolis fathers had not had time to intimidate him. At a subsequent, higher meeting of ministers, Nixon's schedule was threatened by way of the monks's reluctance to toughen the campaign. Nixon was indignant, pointing out that their poor congregations labored to put money into the assortment plates so those ministers may just are living neatly, and when the ones congregations needed the clergy to stand up for them, those comfortable ministers refused to take action. Nixon threatened to expose the ministers' cowardice to the black group, and King spoke up, denying he was afraid to support the boycott. King agreed to lead the MIA, and Nixon was elected its treasurer.

Boycott The National City Lines bus, No. 2857, on which Rosa Parks rode ahead of she was arrested (a GM "old-look" transit bus, serial number 1132), is now on exhibit at the Henry Ford Museum.

On the evening of Rosa Parks' arrest, the Women's Political Council, led via Jo Ann Robinson, published and circulated a flyer right through Montgomery's black neighborhood that learn as follows:

Another woman has been arrested and thrown in prison as a result of she refused to rise up out of her seat on the bus for a white particular person to take a seat down. It is the 2d time since the Claudette Colvin case that a Negro girl has been arrested for the similar factor. This has to be stopped. Negroes have rights too, for if Negroes did not journey the buses, they could now not perform. Three-fourths of the riders are Negro, yet we are arrested, or have to face over empty seats. If we don't do one thing to forestall those arrests, they are going to continue. The next time it can be you, or your daughter, or mom. This lady's case will come up on Monday. We are, subsequently, asking every Negro to stick off the buses Monday in protest of the arrest and trial. Don't experience the buses to work, to the city, to school, or anyplace on Monday. You can manage to pay for to stick out of faculty for someday if you don't have any different technique to cross except by means of bus. You can also afford to stick out of town for sooner or later. If you work, take a cab, or stroll. But please, kids and grown-ups, do not experience the bus at all on Monday. Please stay off all buses Monday.[31][33]

The subsequent morning there was a meeting led by way of the new MIA head, King, where a bunch of 16 to 18 other people collected at the Mt. Zion Church to discuss boycott methods. At that point Rosa Parks was offered but no longer requested to talk, in spite of a status ovation and calls from the crowd for her to talk; she requested any person if she should say one thing, but they responded, "Why, you've said enough."[34] A citywide boycott of public transit was proposed, with 3 demands: 1) courteous remedy by bus operators, 2) passengers seated on a first-come, first-served foundation, with black folks seated in the again half and white folks seated in the front part, and three) black other people could be employed as bus operators on routes predominately taken by black people.[35]

This call for was a compromise for the leaders of the boycott, who believed that the city of Montgomery could be more likely to accept it moderately than a requirement for a full integration of the buses. In this respect, the MIA leaders followed the development of Nineteen Fifties boycott campaigns in the Deep South, together with the successful boycott a few years previous of carrier stations in Mississippi for refusing to offer restrooms for blacks. The organizer of that marketing campaign, T. R. M. Howard of the Regional Council of Negro Leadership, had spoken on the lynching of Emmett Till as King's visitor at the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church only 4 days ahead of Parks's arrest. Parks was in the audience and later said that Emmett Till was on her thoughts when she refused to give up her seat.[36]

The MIA's demand for a set dividing line was to be supplemented via a requirement that each one bus passengers receive courteous treatment by means of bus operators, be seated on a first-come, first-served foundation, and that blacks be hired as bus drivers.[37] The proposal was passed, and the boycott was to commence the following Monday. To publicize the coming near near boycott it was advertised at black churches throughout Montgomery the following Sunday.[38]

On Saturday, December 3, it was obvious that the black community would make stronger the boycott, and very few blacks rode the buses that day. On December 5, a mass meeting was held at the Holt Street Baptist Church to decide if the protest would continue.[39] Given twenty mins understand, King gave a speech[40] asking for a bus boycott and attendees enthusiastically agreed. Starting December 7, J Edgar Hoover's FBI noted the "agitation among negroes" and attempted to search out "derogatory information" about King.[41]

The boycott proved extraordinarily efficient, with enough riders misplaced to the city transit device to cause serious financial distress. Martin Luther King later wrote "[a] miracle had taken place." Instead of driving buses, boycotters organized a machine of carpools, with automobile owners volunteering their cars or themselves driving other people to more than a few locations. Some white housewives also drove their black home servants to paintings. When the metropolis harassed native insurance coverage corporations to forestall insuring cars utilized in the carpools, the boycott leaders organized policies at Lloyd's of London.[42]

Black taxi drivers charged ten cents in keeping with ride, a fare equal to the value to experience the bus, in strengthen of the boycott. When word of this reached metropolis officers on December 8, the order went out to high quality any cab driver who charged a rider not up to Forty five cents. In addition to the usage of personal motor automobiles, some other folks used non-motorized approach to get around, such as biking, strolling, and even driving mules or using horse-drawn buggies. Some folks also hitchhiked. During rush hours, sidewalks were continuously crowded. As the buses gained few, if any, passengers, their officers requested the City Commission to permit stopping provider to black communities.[43] Across the nation, black churches raised money to enhance the boycott and picked up new and relatively used sneakers to replace the tattered sneakers of Montgomery's black electorate, many of whom walked far and wide relatively than trip the buses and put up to Jim Crow rules.

In reaction, opposing whites swelled the ranks of the White Citizens' Council, the membership of which doubled all over the route of the boycott. The councils on occasion resorted to violence: King's and Abernathy's properties were firebombed, as had been four black Baptist churches. Boycotters have been steadily physically attacked. After the attack at King's house, he gave a speech to the Three hundred offended African Americans who had amassed outside. He said:

If you've gotten weapons, take them house; for those who shouldn't have them, please don't seek to get them. We cannot remedy this problem via retaliatory violence. We must meet violence with nonviolence. Remember the phrases of Jesus: "He who lives by the sword will perish by the sword". We should love our white brothers, no matter what they do to us. We should lead them to know that we love them. Jesus nonetheless cries out in phrases that echo throughout the centuries: "Love your enemies; bless them that curse you; pray for them that despitefully use you". This is what we must reside via. We should meet hate with love. Remember, if I'm stopped, this motion won't stop, because God is with the motion. Go home with this sparkling religion and this radiant assurance.[44]

King and 88 different boycott leaders and carpool drivers had been indicted[45] for conspiring to interfere with a trade beneath a 1921 ordinance.[46] Rather than wait to be arrested, they became themselves in as an act of defiance.

King was ordered to pay a 0 high quality or serve 386 days in jail. He ended up spending two weeks in jail. The move backfired via bringing nationwide attention to the protest. King commented on the arrest by means of saying: "I was proud of my crime. It was the crime of joining my people in a nonviolent protest against injustice."[47]

Also essential all over the bus boycott have been grass-roots activist groups that helped to catalyze each fund-raising and morale. Groups comparable to the Club from Nowhere helped to maintain the boycott through discovering new techniques of elevating money and offering enhance to boycott members.[48] Many contributors of these organizations were ladies and their contributions to the effort had been described by means of some as crucial to the good fortune of the bus boycott.[49][50]

Victory Smithsonian Institution touring exhibition[51] "381 Days: The Montgomery Bus Boycott" at the Washington State History Museum

Pressure increased throughout the country. The similar civil suit was heard in federal district courtroom and, on June 5, 1956, the court ruled in Browder v. Gayle (1956) that Alabama's racial segregation regulations for buses have been unconstitutional.[52] As the state appealed the choice, the boycott endured. The case moved on to the United States Supreme Court. On November 13, 1956, the Supreme Court upheld the district court docket's ruling.[53][54]

The bus boycott officially ended December 20, 1956, after 381 days. The Montgomery bus boycott resounded some distance past the desegregation of public buses. It stimulated activism and participation from the South in the national Civil Rights Movement and gave King nationwide consideration as a rising chief.[51][55]

Aftermath

White backlash in opposition to the court docket victory was fast, brutal, and, in the temporary, effective.[56][57] Two days after the inauguration of desegregated seating, somebody fired a shotgun through the front door of Martin Luther King's home. An afternoon later, on Christmas Eve, white males attacked a black youngster as she exited a bus. Four days after that, two buses had been fired upon by way of snipers. In one sniper incident, a pregnant woman was shot in both legs. On January 10, 1957, bombs destroyed 5 black church buildings and the home of Reverend Robert S. Graetz, one of the few white Montgomerians who had publicly sided with the MIA.[58][59]

The City suspended bus provider for several weeks on account of the violence. According to criminal historian Randall Kennedy, "When the violence subsided and service was restored, many black Montgomerians enjoyed their newly recognized right only abstractly ... In practically every other setting, Montgomery remained overwhelmingly segregated ..."[59] On January 23, a gaggle of Klansmen (who would later be charged for the bombings) lynched a black guy, Willie Edwards, on the pretext that he was dating a white woman.[60]

The city's elite moved to support segregation in different spaces, and in March 1957 passed an ordinance making it "unlawful for white and colored persons to play together, or, in company with each other ... in any game of cards, dice, dominoes, checkers, pool, billiards, softball, basketball, baseball, football, golf, track, and at swimming pools, beaches, lakes or ponds or any other game or games or athletic contests, either indoors or outdoors."[59]

Later in the 12 months, Montgomery police charged seven Klansmen with the bombings, but all of the defendants had been acquitted. About the similar time, the Alabama Supreme Court dominated in opposition to Martin Luther King's appeal of his "illegal boycott" conviction.[61] Rosa Parks left Montgomery because of demise threats and employment blacklisting.[62] According to Charles Silberman, "by 1963, most Negroes in Montgomery had returned to the old custom of riding in the back of the bus."[63]

The National Memorial for Peace and Justice incorporates, amongst other issues, a sculpture "dedicated to the women who sustained the Montgomery Bus Boycott", via Dana King, to lend a hand illustrate the civil rights period.[64] The memorial opened in downtown Montgomery, Alabama on April 26, 2018.[65][66]

Participants

People Ralph Abernathy Hugo Black James F. Blake Aurelia Browder Mary Fair Burks Johnnie Carr Claudette Colvin Clifford Durr Mildred Fahrni[67] Georgia Gilmore Robert Graetz Fred Gray Grover C. Hall Jr. Coretta Scott King Martin Luther King Jr. Theodora Lacey Edgar Nixon Rosa Parks Mother Pollard Jo Ann Robinson Bayard Rustin Nate Singleton Glenn Smiley Mary Louise Smith Organizations Committee for Nonviolent Integration Fellowship of Reconciliation Georgia Gilmore Men of Montgomery Montgomery Improvement Association National Association for the Advancement of Colored People Women's Political Council

See additionally

1957 Alexandra Bus Boycott Boycott (2001 film) Bristol Bus Boycott, 1963 The Legacy Museum The Long Walk Home (1990 film) Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story Rosa Parks Act Rosa Parks Museum

References

^ .mw-parser-output cite.citationfont-style:inherit.mw-parser-output .quotation qquotes:"\"""\"""'""'".mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .quotation .cs1-lock-free abackground:linear-gradient(clear,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")appropriate 0.1em middle/9px no-repeat.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .quotation .cs1-lock-registration abackground:linear-gradient(clear,clear),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em middle/9px no-repeat.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription abackground:linear-gradient(clear,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")correct 0.1em center/9px no-repeat.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registrationcolor:#555.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration spanborder-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon abackground:linear-gradient(clear,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em heart/12px no-repeat.mw-parser-output code.cs1-codecolor:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-errordisplay:none;font-size:100%.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-errorfont-size:100%.mw-parser-output .cs1-maintdisplay:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em.mw-parser-output .cs1-formatfont-size:95%.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-leftpadding-left:0.2em.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-rightpadding-right:0.2em.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflinkfont-weight:inherit"Montgomery Bus Boycott". 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Cooper, Jr., Thomas E. Terrill, The American South: A History, Volume II, Four ed., Rowman and Littlefield, 2009, p. 730. ^ The company was offered to the City of Montgomery in 1974 and change into the Montgomery Area Transit System ^ Boyle, Kevin (November 21, 1995). The UAW and the Heyday of American Liberalism, 1945–1968. Cornell University Press. p. 121. ISBN 978-1-5017-1327-9. ^ McGuire, Danielle L. (2010). At the Dark End of the Street: Black Women, Rape, and Resistance- A New History of the Civil Rights Movement from Rosa Parks to the Rise of Black Power. Random House. p. Eight and 39. ISBN 978-0-307-26906-5. ^ "Rosa Park's arrest report" (PDF). December 1, 1955. Archived from the authentic (PDF) on October 22, 2015. Retrieved March 3, 2016. ^ "Parks, Rosa Louise." Encyclopedia Americana. Grolier Online (accessed May 8, 2009). ^ a b Feeney, Mark (October 25, 2005). "Rosa Parks, civil rights icon, dead at 92 - The Boston Globe". Boston.com. 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External links

Wikimedia Commons has media associated with Montgomery Bus Boycott.Alabama Civil Rights Collection - Jack Rabin Collection on Alabama Civil Rights and Southern Activists, at Penn State University, includes oral historical past interviews and fabrics regarding Montgomery Bus Boycott Montgomery Bus Boycott article, Encyclopedia of Alabama Montgomery Bus Boycott - Story of Montgomery Bus Boycott Encyclopedia entry on the Montgomery Bus Boycott ~ Includes cross-referenced textual content, historic paperwork and streaming audio, offered by means of the King Research Institute at Stanford University The Montgomery Bus Boycott - African-American History Montgomery Bus Boycott ~ Civil Rights Movement Archive Learning From Rosa Parks, The Indypendent Montgomery Bus Boycott - Presented via the Montgomery Advertiser Civil Rights Era Mug Shots, Montgomery County Sheriff's Office, Alabama Department of Archives & History Martin Luther King and the "Montgomery Story" Comic Book - 1956 Montgomery Bus Boycott Documents Online collection of authentic boycott paperwork and articles by means of members ~ Civil Rights Movement Archive. Montgomery Bus Boycott, Civil Rights Digital Library. The Boycott, The Rebellious Life of Mrs. Rosa Parks.vteCivil Rights Movement (1950s and Sixties)Notableevents(timeline)Prior to 1954 Journey of Reconciliation Murder of Harry and Harriette Moore Sweatt v. Painter (1950) McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents (1950) Baton Rouge bus boycott1954–1959 Brown v. Board of Education Bolling v. Sharpe Briggs v. Elliott Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County Gebhart v. Belton Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company Emmett Till Montgomery bus boycott Browder v. Gayle Tallahassee bus boycott Mansfield faculty desegregation 1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom "Give Us the Ballot" Royal Ice Cream sit-in Little Rock Nine National Guard blockade Civil Rights Act of 1957 Katz Drug Store sit-in Kissing Case Biloxi wade-ins1960–1963 New Year's Day March Greensboro sit-ins Nashville sit-ins Atlanta sit-ins Sit-in motion Greenville Eight Civil Rights Act of 1960 Ax Handle Saturday Gomillion v. Lightfoot Boynton v. Virginia Rock Hill sit-ins Robert F. Kennedy's Law Day Address Freedom Rides attacks Garner v. Louisiana Albany Movement Cambridge movement University of Chicago sit-ins "Second Emancipation Proclamation" Meredith enrollment, Ole Miss insurrection "Segregation now, segregation forever" Stand in the Schoolhouse Door 1963 Birmingham campaign Letter from Birmingham Jail Children's Crusade Birmingham rise up sixteenth Street Baptist Church bombing John F. Kennedy's speech to the country on Civil Rights Detroit Walk to Freedom March on Washington "I Have a Dream" Big Six St. Augustine movement1964–1968 Twenty-fourth Amendment Chester school protests Bloody Tuesday 1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests Freedom Summer workers' murders Civil Rights Act of 1964 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches "How Long, Not Long" Voting Rights Act of 1965 Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections March Against Fear White House Conference on Civil Rights Chicago Freedom Movement/Chicago open housing movement Memphis sanitation strike King assassination funeral riots Civil Rights Act of 1968 Fair Housing Act Poor People's Campaign Green v. County School Board of New Kent County Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.Activistgroups Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights Atlanta Student Movement Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) Committee for Freedom Now Committee on Appeal for Human Rights Council for United Civil Rights Leadership Council of Federated Organizations Dallas County Voters League Deacons for Defense and Justice Georgia Council on Human Relations Highlander Folk School Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights Lowndes County Freedom Organization Montgomery Improvement Association Nashville Student Movement NAACP Youth Council Northern Student Movement National Council of Negro Women National Urban League Operation Breadbasket Regional Council of Negro Leadership Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) Southern Regional Council Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) The Freedom Singers United Auto Workers (UAW) Wednesdays in Mississippi Women's Political CouncilActivists Ralph Abernathy Victoria Gray Adams Zev Aelony Mathew Ahmann Muhammad Ali William G. Anderson Gwendolyn Armstrong Arnold Aronson Ella Baker Marion Barry Daisy Bates Harry Belafonte James Bevel Claude Black Gloria Blackwell Randolph Blackwell Unita Blackwell Ezell Blair Jr. Joanne Bland Julian Bond Joseph E. Boone William Holmes Borders Amelia Boynton Bruce Boynton Raylawni Branch Stanley Branche Ruby Bridges Aurelia Browder H. Rap Brown Guy Carawan Stokely Carmichael Johnnie Carr James Chaney J. L. Chestnut Colia Lafayette Clark Ramsey Clark Septima Clark Xernona Clayton Eldridge Cleaver Kathleen Cleaver Charles E. Cobb Jr. Annie Lee Cooper Dorothy Cotton Claudette Colvin Vernon Dahmer Jonathan Daniels Joseph DeLaine Dave Dennis Annie Devine Patricia Stephens Due Joseph Ellwanger Charles Evers Medgar Evers Myrlie Evers-Williams Chuck Fager James Farmer Walter Fauntroy James Forman Marie Foster Golden Frinks Andrew Goodman Robert Graetz Fred Gray Jack Greenberg Dick Gregory Lawrence Guyot Prathia Hall Fannie Lou Hamer William E. Harbour Vincent Harding Dorothy Height Lola Hendricks Aaron Henry Oliver Hill Donald L. Hollowell James Hood Myles Horton Zilphia Horton T. R. M. Howard Ruby Hurley Jesse Jackson Jimmie Lee Jackson Richie Jean Jackson T. J. Jemison Esau Jenkins Barbara Rose Johns Vernon Johns Frank Minis Johnson Clarence Jones J. Charles Jones Matthew Jones Vernon Jordan Tom Kahn Clyde Kennard A. D. King C.B. King Coretta Scott King Martin Luther King Jr. Martin Luther King Sr. Bernard Lafayette James Lawson Bernard Lee Sanford R. Leigh Jim Letherer Stanley Levison John Lewis Viola Liuzzo Z. Alexander Looby Joseph Lowery Clara Luper Danny Lyon Malcolm X Mae Mallory Vivian Malone Bob Mants Thurgood Marshall Benjamin Mays Franklin McCain Charles McDew Ralph McGill Floyd McKissick Joseph McNeil James Meredith William Ming Jack Minnis Amzie Moore Cecil B. Moore Douglas E. Moore Harriette Moore Harry T. Moore William Lewis Moore Irene Morgan Bob Moses William Moyer Elijah Muhammad Diane Nash Charles Neblett Edgar Nixon Jack O'Dell James Orange Rosa Parks James Peck Charles Person Homer Plessy Adam Clayton Powell Jr. Fay Bellamy Powell Al Raby Lincoln Ragsdale A. Philip Randolph George Raymond George Raymond Jr. Bernice Johnson Reagon Cordell Reagon James Reeb Frederick D. Reese Walter Reuther Gloria Richardson David Richmond Bernice Robinson Jo Ann Robinson Angela Russell Bayard Rustin Bernie Sanders Michael Schwerner Cleveland Sellers Charles Sherrod Alexander D. Shimkin Fred Shuttlesworth Modjeska Monteith Simkins Glenn E. Smiley A. Maceo Smith Kelly Miller Smith Mary Louise Smith Maxine Smith Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson Charles Kenzie Steele Hank Thomas Dorothy Tillman A. P. Tureaud Hartman Turnbow Albert Turner C. T. Vivian Wyatt Tee Walker Hollis Watkins Walter Francis White Roy Wilkins Hosea Williams Kale Williams Robert F. Williams Andrew Young Whitney Young Sammy Younge Jr. James ZwergInfluences Nonviolence Padayatra Sermon on the Mount Mahatma Gandhi Ahimsa Satyagraha The Kingdom of God Is Within You Frederick Douglass W. E. B. Du Bois Mary McLeod BethuneRelated Jim Crow regulations Lynching in the United States Plessy v. Ferguson Separate but equal Buchanan v. Warley Hocutt v. Wilson Sweatt v. Painter Hernandez v. Texas Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States Katzenbach v. McClung Loving v. Virginia African-American ladies in the movement Fifth Circuit Four Brown Chapel Dexter Avenue Baptist Church Holt Street Baptist Church Edmund Pettus Bridge March on Washington Movement African-American churches attacked List of lynching sufferers in the United States Freedom songs "Kumbaya" "Keep Your Eyes on the Prize" "Oh, Freedom" "This Little Light of Mine" "We Shall Not Be Moved" "We Shall Overcome" Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam "Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence" Watts riots Voter Education Project 1960s counterculture Eyes on the PrizeHonoring In popular culture Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial different King memorials Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument Freedom Riders National Monument Civil Rights Memorial St. Augustine Foot Soldiers MonumentNotedhistorians Taylor Branch Clayborne Carson John Dittmer Michael Eric Dyson Chuck Fager Adam Fairclough David Garrow David Halberstam Vincent Harding Steven F. Lawson Doug McAdam Diane McWhorter Charles M. Payne Timothy Tyson Akinyele Umoja Movement photographers Authority keep an eye on LCCN: sh2006000842 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Montgomery_bus_boycott&oldid=1014282961"